What do Huawei, a hacking-for-hire group in India, and Russian cyber criminals have in common? They all maintain a unique relationship with the state that significantly influences cyber(in-)security politics. The dynamics between these semi-state actors and states are intricate and evolving, yet often misunderstood. This work provides a theoretical and empirical examination of the political challenges arising from these interactions. By drawing historical parallels to pirates, privateers, and mercantile companies, it explores the political constitution and interactions of cybercrime, state-sponsored hackers, and major tech firms. Utilizing archival sources and innovative theory, it highlights similarities between contemporary cyber(in-)security and the historical pursuits of wealth and power on the high seas from the 16th to 19th centuries. The text elucidates the implications of semi-state actors for national and international security, emphasizing that their closeness to the state is a crucial factor in shaping cyber(in-)security. It also clarifies how these actors relate to concepts of statehood, sovereignty, and legitimacy. By examining the political use of state proximity by both attackers and defenders, as well as state collaborations with cyber criminals and the relationships of tech companies with the state, the work offers a fresh perspective on the international politics of cyber(in-)security.
